industrial revolution Essay -- essays research papers

What factors helped to promote America’s huge industrial growth during the period from 1860-1900? America had a huge industrial revolution in the late 1800†s. Many changes happened to our great nation, which factored into this. The evidence clearly shows that advancements in new technology, a large wave of immigrants into our country and new views of our government, helped to promote America’s huge industrial growth from the period of 1860-1900. Advancements in new technology clearly promoted the industrial growth of the United States. The new technologies allowed business owners to reduce labor in the movement of materials from one point to the other. This occurred by using the new technology of railroads and machinery. Business owners used the railroads to transport their finished product and raw materials around the country more efficiently, which enabled businesses to expand. The business owners were now able to use machines for lifting materials from one floor to another and to use conveyer belts to move materials around on an assembly line. The use of machines is evident because the graph in document 5 clearly shows that American industrial and agricultural power sources between 1850 and 1900 changed. This is evident because in 1850, only 13% human power and 35% water and coal power was used, but in 1900 a mere 5% human power and a whopping 73% water and coal power was used. The use of machines more than doubled over t he course from 1850-1900, and the human output de...

Human Migration Essay

Human migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intention of settling temporarily or permanently in the new location. The movement is typically over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is also possible. Migration may be individuals, family units or in large groups. Immigration is the movement of people into a country to which they are not native in order to settle there, especially as permanent residents or future citizens. Immigrants are motivated to leave their native countries for a variety of reasons, including a lack of local access to resources, a desire for economic prosperity, family re-unification, escape from prejudice, conflict or natural disaster, or simply the wish to change one’s surroundings. 1. Build background about human migration and types of migration. Explain to students that human migration is the movement of people from one place in the world to another. Ask: What are some different types of human movements? Then tell students that people move for many reasons, and that types of human migration include: †¢internal migration: moving within a state, country, or continent †¢external migration: moving to a different state, country, or continent †¢emigration: leaving one country to move to another †¢immigration: moving into a new country †¢return migration: moving back to where you came from †¢seasonal migration: moving with each season or in response to labor or climate conditions 2. Discuss people who migrate. Tell students that people who migrate fall into several categories: †¢An emigrant is a person who is leaving one country to live in another. †¢An immigrant is a person who is entering a country from another to make a new home. †¢A refugee is a person who has moved to a new country because of a problem in their former home Have students provide specific examples of each to demonstrate understanding of the differences between the three terms. 3. Brainstorm reasons for migrating. Ask: Why do people move? What forces do you think drive human migration? Then explain to students that people move for many reasons and that those reasons are called push factors and pull factors. Tell students that push factors include leaving a place because of a problem, such as a food shortage, war, or flood. Tell students that pull factors include moving to a place because of something good, such as a nicer climate, more job opportunities, or a better food supply. Ask: What effect does a region’s economy; climate, politics, and culture have on migration to and from the area? Have students brainstorm additional reasons for migrating, such as displacement by a natural disaster, lack of natural resources, the state of an economy, and more. The relatively permanent movement of people across territorial boundaries is referred to as in migration and out-migration, or immigration and emigration when the boundaries crossed are international. The place of in-migration or immigration is called the receiver population, and the place of out-migration or emigration is called the sender population. There are two basic types of migration studied by demographers: 1.Internal migration. This refers to a change of residence within national boundaries, such as between states, provinces, cities, or municipalities. An internal migrant is someone who moves to a different administrative territory. 2.International migration. This refers to change of residence over national boundaries. An international migrant is someone who moves to a different country. International migrants are further classified as legal immigrants, illegal immigrants, and refugees. Legal immigrants are those who moved with the legal permission of the receiver nation, illegal immigrants are those who moved without legal permission, and refugees are those crossed an international boundary to escape persecution. Jay Weinstein and Vijayan Pillai (2001) denote a third classification: forced migration. Forced migration exists when a person is moved against their will (slaves), or when the move is initiated because of external factors (natural disaster or civil war). The distinction between internal and international migration is crucial because they happen for different reasons. Because structural barriers are more likely to impede the mobility of a potential international migrant than an internal migrant—international migration involves more administrative procedures, greater expense, and more difficulties associated  with obtaining employment, accessing state services, learning a new language, and the like—the motivations behind international migration are usually stronger than those behind internal migration (Weeks 1999). Why do people migrate? People have moved from their home countries for centuries, for all sorts of reasons. Some are drawn to new places by ‘pull ‘ factors, others find it difficult to remain where they are and migrate because of ‘push’ factors. These have contributed to the recent movement of people here but are also the reason why people from here have emigrated to other countries. Over 80 million people in the world have Irish blood; 36.5 million US residents claimed Irish ancestry in 2007. Historically some were transported or sold into slavery or left because of poverty, hunger, persecution, discrimination, civil war, unemployment and, more recently, simply for education and better jobs. Migrant numbers have risen rapidly in the last decade. In 2013 there were thought to be over 230 million international migrants. Pull Factors Migrants are drawn increasingly to countries such as the UK and Ireland by the following factors: †¢Developed countries, or industrialised city areas within countries, draw labour from countries or areas where incomes are lower. †¢International transport has never been easier and is cheaper than ever, relative to incomes. †¢The telephone and internet make it easier to access information. †¢Falling birth rates in developed countries contribute to labour shortages and skills gaps. †¢Extra people are required when there is rapid economic expansion. †¢People are drawn to stable democracies where human rights and religious freedoms are more likely to be respected. †¢Many people in other parts of the world speak English. †¢Young people move in order to get better jobs or improve their qualifications, including their language skills. Push Factors Negative factors at home add to the reasons why people feel compelled to move. †¢Lack of prospects for career advancement †¢Poverty and low incomes †¢High unemployment rates †¢Persecution and poor human rights †¢Internal conflict and war †¢Natural disasters, climate change and famine THE IMMIGRATION The immigration, as a decision made by a person is an act that occurs, because of some factors especially in the under developed countries and the most important causes or reasons are mainly social reasons, politic reasons and economic reasons. For the first reason which is the social one , the underdeveloped countries know and suffer from crisis at the economic level, this factor leads the people to immigrates abroad in order togain money , and find a work. Also, poverty leads many people and pushes them to search for a work and gain money to solve their problems and afford their needs, but this isn’t available or easy to reach in their home country, so that they choose to travel abroad where the work is available and the cost of living isn’t rising, and where they can improve their social situation. For the second reason, which is politic, and as we know, in some countries especially the underdeveloped one there is some civil wars between the citizenship, this fact means that there is no peace in that country and automatically we know that when there is no peace there is no normal life, because when the war start it damaged anything and everyone who is in front of it, and because of all that some people choose to travel abroad and avoid any trouble caused by the war. At least, and for the third reason, which is the economic one, the most underdeveloped countries suffer from the low salaries that the workers get, which push many of them to think of the immigration. Also, those countries don’t afford for all the people enough jobs especially for the younger’s that are considered as new comers to the job market where they shocked when they discover that there isn’t enough jobs for them and so that their decision will be surely to travel abroad or to immigrate definitively . But the most dangerous problem is that some  younger’s travel even if they have high degrees in different domains and this will leads those countries to fall in the problem of BRAIN DRAIN, so that their immigration could be a great loss for their countries, especially in a time where there countries are in a great need for their knowledge. Finally, and in my opinion I think that every under country must afford enough jobs, especially for the Youngers those that are considered as the future of the country, and try to reduce the social problems and then stop the immigration.

Gender Inequality The United States - 939 Words

Gender inequality has been an issue in the United States of America since the very founding of the country. Many believe that the sexes are equal in the United States of today because nearly a hundred years ago women gained the right to vote but this was not the only hurdle we needed to surmount. Gender inequality is alive and thriving even today, and although this is definitely not the only issue American women face today, it can be seen in something called the wage gap. It is commonly known that the average woman makes 77 cents to a man’s dollar, but this only applies to white women. The gap increases more and more for women of color. The median black woman earns 65.1% of what the median white man earns hourly, and the median Hispanic woman earns 58.9% as much, (Davis). The Economic Policy Institute found some other interesting facts in their search for information on the wage gap and how to close it. They found that the gender wage gap exists at â€Å"every decile in the w age distribution, at every level of educational attainment, and in the majority of occupations†. They say that if we had closed the gender wage gap and had wages grown in line with productivity from 1979-2014, which they did not, the hourly wages of the median woman could be over 70 percent higher today—$26.04 instead of $15.21. Building on this, they also found that only, â€Å"About 16 percent ($1.69) of the disparity is explained by gender inequality, 49.1 percent ($5.32) is explained by overall inequalityShow MoreRelatedGender Inequality Of The United States1363 Words   |  6 Pagesof color, you’re going to be underpaid, so there’s really no point,† Daniel recalled (â€Å"Career and Workplace† 4). A future law graduate was told to throw away her dreams in regards to gender inequality. A girl named Reshma Daniel had to give up what she loved most because of a situation regarding both her race and gender. Reshma Daniel’s parents moved to America from India with just a couple dollars. Her parents wanted their children to live the Amer ican life. For Daniel, that simply meant law schoolRead MoreGender Inequality Within The United States1531 Words   |  7 Pageswe can see there is a trend implicates that the gender roles are slowly starting to change but the gender stereotype still have stayed firmly over the years in North America even though people are now more aware of the problem of gender inequality. In North America, gender roles between women and men are now being shared more equally in workspace due to the feminism movements and higher literacy level of women, but there are still gender inequality existing in our society. Feminism movements haveRead MoreGender Inequality Within The United States1701 Words   |  7 PagesGender has had a repeating effect on the choice of careers for people all throughout the United States. In history, it is taught that males dominated women in many careers, while women dominated males in only a few other minor positions. Males had an upper hand over women in engineering and in the military. One of the reasons males dominated was the idea of dominance over women has been passed down for centuries. It was never common for a women to be an engineer of a home or anything that wasn’tRead MoreGender Inequality Within The United States1879 Words   |  8 Pagesand colonization has evolved, gender in the United States has been constructed in a manner that is unknown in other countries. Our society has made different stereotypes for certain sexes. It is socially impossible to not make a collation between sex and gender in the United States. Women are viewed the same in the professional world and in the home life perspective. All roles played by women are considered to be inadequate or insignificant compared to men. Gender characteristics, such as masculinityRead MoreGender Inequality During The United States1971 Words   |  8 PagesCorona 1 Yailin Corona Honors English 11-4 Junior Research Paper 3 March 2016 Gender Inequality in the U.S. For years, women have been viewed as weak, indecisive, and subjective. Women have become more empowered since their suffrage and earning their rights. Although, they have their rights, women are not equal to men in today’s society because of unequal pay and discrimination. The pay between the two gender in recent college graduates and stabilized jobs opt towards males. Women are discriminatedRead MoreGender Inequality Within The United States2702 Words   |  11 PagesGender Inequality In the United States there are many human equal rights for women but they are insufficient to create equality. Despite of many equality rules gender inequality still exists and that’s the fact. In history women were not allowed to study or work. In modern world women are achieving education goals and also working. Does that mean women are getting equal treatments? The answer is no, women are not treated as equally as men. The graduation rates for women are higher then men, butRead MoreGender Inequality Within The United States1686 Words   |  7 PagesThere have been many advances in society, especially for women despite these advancements, there continues to be inequalities in sexual â€Å"equality† .Why does a wage difference exists between men and women? Are employers being sexist? Sexism has been a problem since the beginning of mankind. Women have struggled to achieve equality with men. The male dominated culture has led the female gender to become the â€Å"wea ker sex†. This discrimination, of course, based on the stereotype that women should be stayRead MoreGender Inequality Within The United States1410 Words   |  6 PagesEquality Among Gender Both within and across different cultures we find great consistency in standards of desirable gender-role behavior. Males are expected to be independent, assertive, and competitive; females are expected to be more passive, sensitive, and supportive. These beliefs have changed over the past twenty years within the United States and apparently around the world as well. Therefore, modern society has been trying for the past decade to eliminate all of these stereotypes and doubleRead MoreGender Inequality Within The United States Of The English Department Of Ku.881 Words   |  4 PagesIn today s society we have gender inequality without us even knowing we are doing it, because it is how we are all raised. From when a lot of us were younger we have seen everyone else â€Å" doing gender† so we have picked up on it.By doing gender we create different levels that men and women are put on. These levels are not natural they are man made. The culture we are raised in assigns and crea tes for us the different attributes and behaviors. Since we are aware of the expectations that are held overRead MoreGender Inequality : A Good Understanding Of The Social Inequality Essay1487 Words   |  6 PagesAs a female college student I feel the necessity to have a good understanding of the social inequalities around me. Although, women have socially grown with more power over the years, it is not enough to equalize with the men. For example, the pay gap difference between men and women for not having the â€Å"testosterone bonus† even though the same education and qualifications are present. I hope that over time I will be able to experience a change and have the same equal rights as men because I feel

Most Famous and Influential Geologists

International Economics And The Field Of International...

I would like to mention some courses that I have taken at Knox College that not only have encouraged me to take up the particular field of study as a major, but have also fortified me to volunteer and intern in the field of international development. These courses are: International Economics (Manisha Pradhananga, Professor), Business Society (John Spittell, Professor) Environmental Natural Resource Economics (Steve Cohn, Professor) and Environmental Ethics (Bill Young, Professor). These particular courses had a great impact on my decision to pursue a major in Economics and a double minor in International Relations Business. In International Economics, I had written a research paper on low-income nations and their dependence on primary commodities for exports and its vulnerability to price shocks. I had carried out my research only keeping applied economics in perspective, therefore, I could not really understand as to why these low-income countries, although having a wide variety of natural resources readily available for production and consumption, still struggling to alleviate themselves from poverty and poor health. The reality and the real-life scenario of such situations was explained to me in the Environmental Economics class by Professor Steve Cohn. Toward the end of the term, I was assigned to write another research paper on greenhouse gas abatement options for third world nations. The ideal solution that came up while working on the project was developedShow MoreRelatedInternational Aid Allocation : The Path For Global Success1151 Words   |  5 PagesInternational Aid Allocation: The Path to Global Success From the origins of large-scale international humanitarian projects in the post-World War I period to current global aid allocation programs, scholars in the field of international aid have focused on the motives behind countries’ generous donations to their underdeveloped counterparts. Myriad studies, regardless of the time frame they encompass, make reference to the moral obligation rich nations have to help the poorest countries. In thisRead MoreShould China Adopt International Accounting Standards?.1532 Words   |  7 PagesShould China Adopt International Accounting Standards? The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issued and developed the new International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) as new international accounting standards after 2001. In 2006, the Chinese government issued a new set of Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises (ASBE) which are substantially consistent with IFRS. As mentioned in the scholarly article of Li and Sun (2011), there are some primary differences between ChineseRead MoreThe Role Of The U. S. State Department863 Words   |  4 PagesThe U.S. State Department uses U.S. Ambassadors for economic reforms designed to level the playing field in entrepreneurship development. They hold countries to their international trade commitments and help with global networks of law, telecommunications, and transportation. The U.S. Trade Representative handles developing and coordinating U.S. international trade and overseeing trade negotiations with other countries. They serve as the president’s principal trade advisor, negotiator, and spokespersonRead MoreForeign Investment And Its Effects On Economic Development1171 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Foreign investment is a tool to foster the economic development in a country. It can be denied that foreign investment helps poor countries to boost their development faster than just only relying on domestic business. The first bilateral treaty was signed in 1959 between Germany and Pakistan. After World War II, European countries started to expand their business to the developing countries? markets. BITs were signed to give confidence to business players from developed states by offeringRead MoreBusiness1209 Words   |  5 Pagesletter is to explain my motivation to study the Masters in Sustainable Development in Agriculture offered by Agris Mundus. I completed from Larenstein University of Professional Education in The Netherlands with a Bachelor Honours Degree in Agribusiness and Management. Since 2004 after I completed the degree program, I have gained experience in Business Management through teaching and learning. The Masters in Sustainable Development in Agriculture offered by Agris Mundus will enable me to get more experienceRead MoreThe Future of the Arctic Is in Our Hands1468 Words   |  6 PagesPreface The arctic is facing today drastic climate changes that, together with technological development will in the near future disclose the Arctics economic potential. We, the people of Greenland, believe that the inhabitants of the Arctic should be the first to benefit from the economic opportunities the Arctic will bring. As historical inhabitants of the Arctic it is our responsibility to make it a peaceful and rich region ensuring at the same time the safeguard of its environment. The futureRead MoreInternational Journal Of Web Services Research1110 Words   |  5 Pagespublications intended to further progress in different fields by reporting new research and findings by various authors. There are thousands of journals dedicated to information technology, most of which release several issues a year. Out of all of these journals, the five that will be discussed are ones that cater specifically to technological applications and developments. International Journal of Web Services Research (IJWSR) The International Journal of Web Services Research is a journal dedicatedRead MoreMy Interest On Health Policy1229 Words   |  5 Pagesstudying population health in more depth through courses in â€Å"Health Promotion† and â€Å"Indigenous Community Development†. This experience opened my eyes to the potential impact of population level work and ultimately led to the decision to focus on broader reaching public health practice. I concentrated my Master’s studies in international health, and, to understand and experience health from an international perspective, felt it was important to live and be educated overseas. Studying in Australia, I wasRead MoreImplementing The Millennium Development Goals1250 Words   |  5 PagesMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) faced major criticism, the pressure lies on the post-2015 development goals to provide a new and efficient set of criteria for global development. The MDGs were perceived as limited and incomplete, and while there is a more extensive list of SGDs, they remain vague. Once gain the goals are high achieving and unattainable within a 15 year span. Although the world has succeeded in significantly reducing poverty, since the creation of the Millennium Development goals,Read MoreGlobalization and the Multinational Corporation: Multiple Choice Questions1378 Words   |  6 PagesInternational Financial Management, 2e (Bekaert / Hodrick) Chapter 1 Globalization and the Multinational Corporation 1.1 Multiple Choice Easy 1) Which of the following was created in an effort to promote free trade? A) World Trade Organization B) the Sarbanes-Oxley Act C) multilateral development banks D) the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Answer: A 2) Which one of the following is an investment from which the payoff over time is derived from the performance

Business Capstone Project Finance and Tax

Question: Describe about the Business Capstone Project for Finance and Tax. Answer: Introduction: This literature review is going to focus on four major areas of the relationship between finance and tax of company. It will also highlight the relationship between the profit, revenue and tax and try to spot the key drivers of tax. Four key phases have been identified by the literature review. The first phase is referred to the effectiveness of finance and tax in an organization. The second phase will relate Administrative effectiveness in tax avoidance in companies in Australia. The third will look to highlight the management of tax risk in an organization. The fourth phase will round up with the The standoff between the Government and Australias mining industry over Resources Super Profits Tax. This literature review converses these four areas by reviewing articles and journals from the same field. 1st Phrase: Effectiveness of Finance and Tax in an Organization First article: Multinational companies are allowed to decide under which separate accounting rules they are to be taxed in relation to the firms behavior and tax revenues. Using different accounting technique leads to profitable productivity. It has been witnessed that generally the low cost and high cost firms are in the habit of utilizing separate accounting whereas the medium costs preference has been the formula apportionment. Symmetrical countries produce greater tax revenues in places with lower tax rates whereas asymmetrical ones prefer do not requires greater tax revenues because of countries valuing tax base deformation in a different way (Gresik 2016). Second Article: According to Anton and Constantin (2013), accounting information takes into account the consumers requirement of information which enables them to build a strong relationship. This article analyzes the various methods to examine the relationship of accounting-taxation relationship controlling the collaboration between the service providers of accounting and their recipients. The research intends in taking the opinions of the accounting professionals concerning about the relationship between accounting and taxation, and the importance they have regarding the business activities. Third Article: Managements important aspect is the financial implications and taxation inference of profitable conclusion. Approval from researchers and ones studying management may not be there regarding the modification of accounts for the reason of accounting which might present a profitable outcome of the business. Accounting facilitates decision making and control along with recording of some accurate information. Taxations main role is to lift revenue and boost up economic and social policy. Preparing accounts in different ways is acceptable through proper accounting standards but the preference is generally subjective to the taxation implications in an inappropriate way (Alzeban and Gwilliam 2014). Fourth Article: Companys accounting profit replicate the application of accounting values for valuing the accurateness in the activities of the company, while the tax income echoes the interest of tax administration. If the accounting interest and the tax interest are not on the same page, it is essential to resolve between accounting, representative of company and taxation being the representative of state. The income tax is stated to be the major expense of the company (Vera 2015). Strengths: The above analysis states that financial accounting and taxation plays a major role in defining a companys success story. Companies do indulge themselves in choosing separate accounting standards that suits them and their calculation of tax. Weakness: Companies believed that tax is a burden or an expense which sometimes gets out of control if not properly taken account of and companies do find ways to deal with the tax burden. Hypothesis: H0: Companies should be allowed to choose different accounting methods and modification of the same. H1: Companies should not be allowed to choose different accounting methods and modifying it for the same. 2nd Phase: Administrative effectiveness in tax avoidance in companies in Australia 1st Article: The authors Davis et al. (2015) examine the relation between corporate social accountability and corporate tax expenses. Existing theories and experimental studies have found pretty much inconsistency in the relation between the two terms and the author is in the mood to find out whether the two actions are substitutes or complements of each other. The relation between corporate social responsibility and the amount of corporate taxes paid are guesstimated. Proves are there where corporate social responsibility is unconstructively related to five year cash successful tax rates and extremely related to tax lobbying expenditures. 2nd Article: The article focuses on whether it is possible to guess a firms actual tax liability and taxable income from the admission of income tax under the current Australia Accounting Standard AASB 112 Income taxes, which affects financial statements for reporting phase starting on or after 1st January, 2005. The problems related with estimating taxable income from current tax expenditure whose disclosure is mandatory under AASB 112 (Tran 2015). 3rd Article: In comparison to many facet of the social responsibility of commerce, CSR has remained silent on the subject of payment of corporate tax. Corporate tax payment may frequently be avoided on a legal basis, though laws and CSR suggest a company has the liability to pay tax. The ones not staying on that track should be considered socially irresponsible. This article of Dowling (2014) highlights the issue of tax avoidance and the measurement of CSR. 4th Article: Tax avoidance is done by companies to reduce or lessen the amount of taxes whereas tax evasion focuses on the activities which are prohibited under the tax legislation like hiding foreign income or claims of fraudulent deductions (McClure Lanis and Govendir 2016). Strength: The above analysis has found out that tax avoidance effect is positive for companies that are well governed. There is a certain framework which is used by the managers in hiding the tax value and it is in a systematic way. Weakness: Avoidance of tax has been recognized as a global problem. Companies do channelize their profits in other countries which charge them with less tax in order to gain competitive advantage over others in the industry. Hypothesis: Ho: Avoidance of tax is legal from a companys viewpoint and can be adjusted accordingly. H1: Avoidance of tax is not at all legal and companies should pay it accordingly. 3rd Phase: Management of tax risk in an organization 1st Article: The article focuses on the contact of the recognition and management of tax risk on the income tax fulfillment and practices by Australian companies with turnover exceeding AUD 250 million with the help of a mixed methodology design (Lavermicocca and McKerchar 2013). Some Australian companies do have this tax management system in place which results in diminishing the acceptance level of tax risk and development in the level of income tax conformity. 2nd Article: A recent study has found out that Australian multinational companies along with the domestic ones are in the habit of holding large amount of cash in their balance sheets. The paper determines whether holding on to the cash has any direct effect on tax risk. Tax authorities can ask for future cash tax payments for which companies may cling to the cash so as to satisfy these future demands (Richardson Taylor and Lanis 2013). It has been witnessed that firms with larger cash balances have a higher risk than the firms who do not. 3rd Article: One of the most important factors of overall risk management for enterprises is the tax risk management influencing the tax cost and economic awareness. The characteristics of tax risk management of bigger companies are facing difficult challenges but are being possessed with the advantage of being under unified management (Meng 2014) 4th Article: The panel of authors Wheeler et al. (2012) inspects the sources of internal tax risk and the prescribed and familiar development for identification, communication and evaluation and resolution of those risks. The article also takes into account the evaluation of formal enterprise tax management policy. A survey has concluded that the biggest tax risks faced by companies irrespective of their size are the overpayment of tax. However the government has long been protesting that they face the difficulty of underpayment of tax. Strengths: It is the responsibility of the management to manage tax through a proper governance framework which will ensure all taxes to be managed in accordance with the prevalent tax laws in time. It is necessary for organizations to have a proper tax function objectives. Weakness: Companies do find ways to save themselves from the burden of tax. It is the problem of the management to think tax payment as a burden. Hypothesis: H0: Companies should hold or show larger amount of cash in order to pay out future tax payments. H1: Companies should not hold or show larger amount of cash in order to pay out future tax payments. 4th Phrase: The standoff between the Government and Australias mining industry over Resources Super Profits Tax 1st Article: The article takes into account the enlistment of various small sized and medium sized companies in the Australias mining industrys movement against Resources Super Profits Tax (RSPT). The articles have insights of top 18 industry players. The Australian Government anticipated that the companies would lend support towards the RSPT as promised by them that they would contribute towards the development (Gilding Merlot and Leitch 2016). However the industry leaders have pleaded to get some extraordinary returns against the odds. 2nd Article: It has been discussed earlier too that some companies are in the habit of holding onto cash, but certain changes in the tax legislation including some income sources will combine such growth with increase in the split in income they hold. The article studies the comprehensive tax reform legislation in 1985 which changed the top Australian companies who do not break up taxable realized capital gains from other taxable income (Burkhauser Hahn Wilkins 2015). 3rd Article: In the year 2010, the Australian federal government lost out on its battle with the countrys mining industry over the implementation of new super profit tax. The authors Bell and Hindmoor (2014) put forward the question whether investment in business is necessary for expansion or whether business will disinvest if new tax law is implemented. The area of concern was whether the foreword of new tax jeopardizes the investment along with employment and growth. This thinking lead to the abandonment of the tax from the industry. 4th Article: In the Australian business-government duel the mobilization of the mining industry opposing the proposed Resources Super Profits Tax (RSPT) was a highlight. This article of Gilding et al. (2012) investigates the news and analyzes the stories as was available in the leading Australian journals. In the buildup of this story it has been found that the social justice arguments have been marginalized. Strengths: The Government wanted to implement resource rent tax on all the non-renewable resources which would have enabled the government to deal with the risk of two speed economy. The tax if applied only to law would have recognized large investments that are compulsory for resource projects. Weakness: The mining industry believed that the implementation of new tax would have severely affected the investment policy. It would have jeopardized the whole situation. Hypothesis: H0: The implementation of RSPT would have affected the investment policy in the mining industry. H1: The implementation of RSPT would not have affected the investment policy in the mining industry. Reference: 1st Phase: Alzeban, A. and Gwilliam, D., 2014. Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation.Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation,23, pp.74-86. Anton, C. and Constantin, C., 2013. The AccountingTaxation Relationship In The Opinion Of The FinancialAccounting Services Providers.Journal of Applied Economic Sciences (JAES), (2 (24)), pp.133-140. Gresik, T.A., 2016. Allowing firms to choose between separate accounting and formula apportionment taxation.Journal of Public Economics,138, pp.32-42 Vera, S., 2015. Accounting, Taxation and Company Performance-Convergences and Contradictions.Valahian Journal of Economic Studies,6(3), p.27. 2nd phase: Davis, A.K., Guenther, D.A., Krull, L.K. and Williams, B.M., 2015. Do Socially Responsible Firms Pay More Taxes?.The Accounting Review,91(1), pp.47-68. Dowling, G.R., 2014. The curious case of corporate tax avoidance: Is it socially irresponsible?.Journal of Business Ethics,124(1), pp.173-184. McClure, R., Lanis, R. and Govendir, B., 2016. Analysis of Tax Avoidance Strategies of Top Foreign Multinationals Operating in Australia: An Expose. Tran, A., 2015, May. Can taxable income be estimated from financial reports of listed companies in Australia?. InAustralian Tax Forum(Vol. 30). 3rd Phase: Lavermicocca, C. and McKerchar, M., 2013. Impact of Managing Tax Risk on the Tax Compliance Behaviour of Large Australian Companies, The.Austl. Tax F.,28, p.707. Meng, J., 2014. CNOOC's Exploring Path for Tax Risk Management of Large Enterprises.International Taxation in China,6, p.019. Richardson, G., Taylor, G. and Lanis, R., 2013. The impact of board of director oversight characteristics on corporate tax aggressiveness: An empirical analysis.Journal of Accounting and Public Policy,32(3), pp.68-88. Wheeler, R., Conway, K., Curry, W.L. and Frank, M., 2012. Strength from within: Critical Aspects of Internal Tax Risk Management.Taxes,90, p.23. 4th phase: Bell, S. and Hindmoor, A., 2014. The structural power of business and the power of ideas: The strange case of the Australian mining tax.New Political Economy,19(3), pp.470-486. Burkhauser, R.V., Hahn, M.H. Wilkins, R. J Econ Inequal (2015) 13: 181. doi:10.1007/s10888-014-9281-z Gilding, M., Merlot, E. and Leitch, S., 2016. The power of hope: the mobilisation of small and mid-tier companies in the mining industry's campaign against the Resources Super Profits Tax.Australian Journal of Political Science,51(1), pp.122-133. Gilding, M., Merlot, E., Leitch, S., Bunton, V. and Glezos, L., 2012. Media framing of the resources super profits tax.Australian Journal of Communication,39(3), p.23.

Nozick Entitlement Theory of Justice

Introduction Libertarianism refers to a theory that advocates for individual freedom in terms of thoughts and actions, what will usually be referred as liberty. The ideology of libertarianism is founded on the principle of natural rights that existed before the advance of governments which is the reason that it advocates for personal liberty to come before the rights of the government.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Nozick Entitlement Theory of Justice specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As such, libertarianism advocates for two major forms of freedom; in transfer of personal property and own life which it argues that a person should live his/her life as one would wish and that transfer of property should be unrestricted as long as it is consensual (Conway). This is the libertarianism ideology that Nozick subscribes to and which forms the basis of the Wilt Chamberlain argument which is going to be the focus of our discussion in this paper. The Wilt Chamberlain Nozick argument is an attempt to provide redress to the unfair distribution of resources which has historically existed. To do this Robert Nozick attacks all forms of patterned theories of justice distribution on three premises which he justifies using the following examples; the Wilt Chamberlain argument, the self-ownership argument and the Kantian argument (Conway). In Wilt Chamberlain example, Nozick reasoning proves that no form of patterned theory of just redistribution is defensible in the long run; this is basically because of the fact that free exchanges between individuals will as a matter of fact disrupt any preexisting pattern of just distribution and cannot also be relied on to achieve future ones (Conway). Because all forms of free exchanges are just, and all forms of just exchanges disrupts â€Å"patterned† theory of justice, then it goes that all free exchanges of property can never be patterned. In a nutshell Wilt Chamberlain argument as advanced by Nozick indicates that â€Å"liberty upsets patterns†, an unavoidable outcome that can only be evaded by either limiting peoples freedom or in that case Wilt Chamberlain freedom if we are to maintain a â€Å"patterned theory of just distribution† (Conway). Throughout this discussion this is the position that this paper will be evaluating by critically reviewing all related arguments, its major critiques and finally why this theory of just entitlement is more practical to achieve and favorable as opposed to patterned theories of just distribution. Entitlement Theory Entitlement theory refers to a model which provides a framework that explains just exchanges in private properties among individuals, what Nozick refers as a theory of â€Å"distributive justice† (Conway). In entitlement theory individual persons are regarded as ends in themselves but not as subjects to other peoples which is one of the principles of morality t hat Nozick raises in the cause of this theory. The entitlement theory is therefore the foundation of Nozick perception of what justice in holdings entails and it limits.Advertising Looking for term paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As such this theory is central to Nozick objection on patterned theory of just distribution because of its inference on all patterned theories limitations and shortcomings on sustaining just distribution of properties. The entitlement theory has three important theories; â€Å"principle of justice in transfer, principle of justice in acquisition and principle of rectification of justice† (Green). The first principle of justice in acquisition attempts to describe how the people might have initially obtained and owned private property historically which Nozick reasons must have been unjust given that it was earned illegitimately through exploitation of slave labor. It is from deduction of this principle that gives rise to the third principle of rectification in which Nozick brings forth suggestions of solutions that should be adopted to rectify the unjust distribution and ownership of property as described in the first principle of just appropriation. Hence, the third principle advanced by Nozick of rectification of injustice is actually an exploratory attempt to find lasting solutions of addressing these historical injustices that led to unjust distribution of property and acquisition. Towards this end Nozick tackles the issues of compensation, restoration and so forth in this section as possible solutions that might rectify the current situation. It is notable to mention that Nozick third principle of rectification is specifically developed to addresses the failures of the theory of just distribution which he perceives to be ineffective. The second principle of just transfer entails the process of voluntary property transfer between individuals that i s made on the basis of consensual agreement (Green). Thus just transfer is described to have occurred when there is freewill and consent made by a person when transferring or acquiring the property. These three principles of property ownership is what Nozick identifies as necessary for a legitimate holding of property and just distribution in what he refers as the entitlement theory (Conway). In his own opinion Nozick provides only two possible scenarios of a legitimately obtained property which is if it was originally acquired or transferred in a just manner, anything else does not constitute just holdings of property (Faser and Nozick). It is from these principles that Nozick develops three major forms of arguments one of which is the renowned Wilt Chamberlain argument which is an analogy that attempts to expound on the concept of entitlement theory.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Nozick Entitlement Theory of Justice specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Because the Wilt Chamberlain argument is founded from the three principles of entitlement theory, let us briefly discuss the Lockean Proviso which Nozick advances to support the principle of just appropriation which he says obliges people to appropriate natural resources in just manner that must ensure â€Å"enough and as good in common is left to others† (Nozick). Lockean Proviso The Lockean Proviso is a theory advanced by John Locke which is one of the concepts contained in his labor theory of property; Nozick modified the Lockean proviso in order to advance the self-ownership theory that governs the historical acquisition of property (Nozick). Though Nozick’s Lockean proviso is compatible with John Lock self-ownership theory it has slightly been modified to specifically provide circumstances under which acquisition and transfer of properties must occur for it to be regarded as just. The Lockean proviso that Nozick advan ces to define the criteria for just appropriation of property states that â€Å"though every appropriation of property is a diminution of another’s rights to it, it is acceptable as long as it does not make anyone worse off than they would have been without any private property† (Nozick). To determine whether a property was originally acquired in a just manner three factors must be shown to exist; one, the process of acquisition should not disadvantage others that relied on the property for their survival, two, acquisition should not be based on enhancement of the property and finally the acquisition should not contravene any of the principles of just distribution of property (Nozick). Having discussed the foundation of Robert Nozick entitlement theory and the concepts of libertarianism let us now take a critical analysis of Wilt Chamberlain argument that Nozick advances to show how all patterned theories of justice cannot be achieved. Wilt Chamberlain Argument Wilt Ch amberlain argument that Nozick presents in this theory is the ultimate example of how the concepts of justice and liberty are incompatible as far as patterned theory of just distribution of properties are concerned. In this argument Nozick does succeed in indicating that people’s freedom of choice, herein referred as liberty is the greatest limitation to any patterned theory of just distribution of property. This is because liberty provides people with leeway to freely decide and make choices in the way that they choose to transfer or acquire good. In doing so it is not possible to achieve any form of uniform (patterned) distribution of the same goods because liberty entails the ability to make arbitrary and random choice of actions (Long).Advertising Looking for term paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand a patterned theory of just distribution requires two important considerations in transfer of goods i.e. it must be just in accordance with principles of entitlement that we have so far described and it must fit a particular â€Å"pattern† (Long). For instance the distribution of goods should be equal and just among all subjects before and after acquisition, or it is transferred in a manner that maximizes its utilization, or distributed by any other criteria that would promote equality; whichever the pattern it should be just and patterned. But as we shall see to achieve this outcome it will be extremely hard and would ultimately require the sacrifice of personal liberty if a patterned just distribution of wealth is to be achieved. Let us now analyze the Wilt Chamberlin argument point by point; premise one of the arguments requires us to imagine a state where just distribution of goods has already taken place based on any of the several patterned theories of just distribution which we can choose from. Our interest will be in the following points that Nozick is going to raise in this argument starting with point number two; in this case several people are described to have freely consented to buy tickets in order to obtain rights necessary to see Wilt Chamberlain play basketball. This point raises two fundamental issues, one, the principle of liberty and two, theory of just distribution of wealth. Because the people enjoy the freewill to transfer their resources as they wish there is the aspect of liberty in this process of wealth distribution. The resulting distribution of goods leads to Wilt being able to acquire more resources than any other person in the society now that he has significantly higher amount that was contributed by several of the members in this hypothetical society. The question then becomes is this resulting distribution of wealth just? To answer this question will have to look more closely at what John Rawl has to sa y in A Theory of justice which we shall look at later on, but in a nut shell according to Nozick just distribution of goods is describe to have occurred if any of these two conditions are satisfied. For previously unowned property if â€Å"enough and as good is left to the others to appropriate† or if transfer of goods has been freely consented to; in our case the second condition applies and we can therefore determine Wilt newly acquired wealth to be just and legitimate (Conway). In any case the consenting members willingly chose to transfer this portion of their wealth in exchange of the luxury of watching Wilt play the basketball. This seemingly arbitrary action has two major ramifications in that one it upsets the just distribution of goods and two because of their choice another group of the society members would be thought to be far worse now than was originally the case before this choice was made by the other section of the society, an outcome that would make one ques tion whether indeed this transfer of wealth was just. These outcomes are the major issues that Nozick is raising in his theory of libertarianism which as we have seen are incompatible with any form of theory that advocates for patterned just distribution of goods. For example in order to sustain the status quo which would certainly maintain the original just distribution of resources which we had assumed to be equal and just for the sake of this argument, it would mean completely curtailing the liberty of people to transfer goods regardless of their consent, this is unlikely to be the case in any form of society. The other option would be drastic reduction of liberty in order to achieve a desired form of just distribution of goods which Nozick states is still unacceptable regardless of the extent of the limitation in freedom of choice. The reasons for this premise is best illustrated through another argument that Nozick illustrates, that of self-ownership which also justifies one of the principles that is expounded by the Wilt Chamberlain argument; that of liberty. The Self Ownership Argument This is the second most important argument that Nozick advances to justify and defend the theory of libertarianism; the self-ownership theory states that â€Å"individuals own themselves – their bodies, talents and abilities, labor, and by extension the fruits or products of their exercise of their talents, abilities and labor† (Dammon). Thus, because people own themselves they should be at liberty to do what they choose without being regulated by any form of authority, of course as long as their actions are not adverse to the welfare of the other members of the society. This principle of liberty that Nozick is advancing here is essentially the same principle that he is trying to defend in the Wilt Chamberlin argument. But the self-ownership theory is also trying to advance another line of thought; that of slavery, which again implies lack of liberty because individuals in this case are bound to work extra without their volition in order to cater for the welfare of others. This is what Nozick is referring as slavery, which is slightly so because there is no choice in failing to pay the tax (Birch). In extent other people ends up benefiting from this unjust distribution of resources, and not only this since this scenario also raises another important issues of morality. Because peoples are ends in themselves, moral principles demands that people not be treated as objects which is the case when they are exploited for the benefit of others; more specifically the resulting wealth that emanates from this arrangement can only be unjust. This is based on the second principle of entitlement theory which Nozick states must involve voluntary and free consent; since this is not the case, this wealth must be considered to be unjust. But it must be noted this is only for that part of the tax which the government collect which is not channeled towar ds the three key functions that Nozick thinks should be the role of a minimal State; protection from fraud, theft and security (Nozick). In the following section let us take an objective criticism of the various principles that Nozick raises in his discussion of libertarianism theory in general and more specifically in the entitlement theory. Discussion on the Critique of entitlement theory and Libertarianism It is a fact that all forms of patterned theories of just distribution are incompatible with the principles of entitlement theory or in that case those of libertarianism; indeed as we have so far indicated they are mutually exclusive. Having said that what Nozick advocates as the way forward out of this quagmire appears to be impossible to achieve; faced with a choice of sacrificing either the liberty that people enjoy in acquisition and transfer of wealth or disruption of patterned just distribution of resources, Nozick chooses to sacrifice patterned just distribution theory r ather than liberty. Being a libertarian, freedom of choice is a necessity that Nozick thinks should not be reneged for the sake of maintaining a patterned just distribution of wealth; the question then becomes is this option the most favorable to make under the circumstances. To answer this question we need to consider the implications that result from this choice as well as the principles that are contained in A Theory of Justice by Rawls. As far as freedom of choice is concerned most critiques of this premise argues that unrestricted freedom of choice negatively affects other members of the society that would not otherwise be the case if liberty was limited. However I find this not to be a serious objection because failure to choose is actually a choice in itself; in that case, the section of people that argues were made worse off by the choice of those who chose to pay for Wilt chamberlain ticket actually also did make a conscious choice of not paying for it. In both instance the aspects of consent and free will are seen to be present. In A Theory of Justice Rawls derives the First Principle of Justice and the Second Principle of Justice from one of the key theories that he discusses; the difference principle. The First Principle states that â€Å"each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for others† (Hikaru). This principle largely attempted to guarantee the basic human rights of all the persons in a society which is seen to be the case in this argument, this is because the liberty of the first group of people who to chose to buy Chamberlain ticket does not in any way lessen the liberty of the second group that chose not to pay for it. The next critique of Nozick theme is based on his self-ownership theory; true the inferences that Nozvick arrives through this stream of thought appear to be radical but certainly not outrageous. The point of contention in this case is not the moral or ethical issues that surround slavery, but rather the undesirable outcome that unwillingly forces someone to work without their consent for the sake of other people. This robs the individual a degree of liberty and propagates the distribution of unjust wealth; so to say that people who pay tax are essentially in control of their life as compared to slaves is a very flimsy argument that holds no water. The major characteristic and the only feature of slavery which makes it so evil is its nature that requires someone to work for whatever reasons, be it for good or otherwise without their consent in what amounts to coercion. Indeed the current system that has been put in place by the government to ensure compliance of tax laws amounts to coercion and forced labor for the simple reasons that you cannot earn unless you pay tax. Besides, taxation system is seen to significantly curtail the freedom of choice; its justification by the government therefore fails the test of objective principles of justice which Rawls describes can only â€Å"be chosen behind a veil of ignorance† (Hikaru). In any case Rawls theory of justice seem to agree that individuals should be left alone to decide whether to allocate part of their wealth by choice to less fortunate in the society because the government distribution system of â€Å"taxed† wealth cannot be said to be unbiased. In A Theory of Justice Rawls recognizes the fact that all individuals desire to achieve a desirable end through the application of principles of justice which requires just consideration of their fellow human beings (Hikaru). It is on this basis that Rawls advances the principle of fair choice situation which is aimed at providing a person with acceptable alternatives of arriving at a reliable determination of justice under ideal conditions. The principles of justice which is the central concept in A Theory of Justice ideology is developed through a process that Rawls describes as the Original Position which refers to a hypothetical position from which all individuals adopt when attempting to arrive to a certain principle of justice (Lennon). This is what Rawls refers to as the Veil of Ignorance in which he is actually describing personal biases or circumstances that essentially prevent someone or institutions in this case from making a fair assessment of a given principle of justice, which is the reason why the wealth distribution by the government is unjust. This veil of ignorance that limits someone or an institution from making an objective determination of principle of justice include level of intelligence, talents, social status, assets and strengths. Hence, the veil of ignorance that are described to exist in the Original Position are what enables an individual to determine and choose an ideal principle of justice that is free from bias (Lennon). As a result this perspective of Original Position leads to what Rawls describes as â€Å"a m axim strategy which would maximize the prospects of the least well-off† and therefore enable equal distribution of economic resources in the society (Lennon). But since this is not even the case no justification of tax should be presented despite the fact that this line of reasoning is beside the point of why tax should not be allowed; this is because tax cannot be justified even in circumstances that can be shown to lead to just distribution of resources. Nevertheless, this would be the position that the principle of justice would hypothetically hope to achieve when applied in an ideal society, but the same principle of justice that Rawls advances does also provide for inequality to occur in the society but only under specific circumstances, at this point this principle diverges from the Nozick theory of entitlement. Let us now finally discuss the third widely held objection to Nozick theory of entitlement which vilifies Nozick objections of wealthy people from helping the po or based on the morality principle which emanates from the Kantian argument. Foremost let see what Rawls has to say about this in his Theory of Justice; the foundation of A Theory of Justice ideology is anchored in two important principles. These two principles of liberty and equality are incompatible as we have just determined to be the case in Nozick theory of entitlement; this is because liberty will always upset any theory of just distribution or equality in this case. But just to mention Rawls attempted to reconcile this incompatibility using two different perspectives i.e. circumstances of justice and the fair choice situation which he concludes are the two circumstances that often confront an individual (Hikaru). But this is not really the point of our focus; in advancing the difference principle Rawls specifically mentions that inequality in the distribution of resources should only occur if â€Å"it is to the advantage of those who are worst-off† (Hikaru). Now if we look back at the circumstances that result from this new form of unequal distribution of wealth we get to see it is certainly not to the advantage of the â€Å"worst-off† who would be the poor, in this case it is the likes of Chamberlain who are benefiting from the proceeds of a just distribution. If this â€Å"unequal distribution† does indeed fail to benefit the poor are we not obliged to help the poor in this case in contravention to Nozick morality principle; I would concur, but first there are two things to consider. One is the conditions that I would be expected to be obliged in helping the poor, note that if this is enforceable for instance in form of taxes that would be contravening my liberty which would make it unjust. Two, we might need to determine if there is really any form of wealth distribution that can occur in a manner that can be described to be equally distributed among individuals in a capitalist State. Because neither the first condition nor the s econd can be guaranteed with certainty this objection to Nozick theory of entitlement is both valid and void depending on the outcomes of the two conditions. Conclusion Indeed no patterned theory of just distribution is defensible, yet we must have both aspects of liberty and justice to achieve an equal distribution of property in the society. By its own standards, I find the just distribution of property to have failed the test in more than one way; this is because if the original holding of properties were justly appropriated we will then have no basis to compel the likes of Wilt Chamberlain to provide for the less fortunate by claiming they owe them in their acquisition. I would suppose that everyone has the same amount of wealth originally, that is if we are to go by the principles of â€Å"patterned theory†, but we know this not to be the case which makes this theory unreliable. The patterned theory and all forms of just distribution also fails another serious test of it applicability because it relies on a clearly equitable system through which it expects to achieve an equal distribution of resources. There are two reasons why a patterned just distribution of wealth cannot be achieved; because of the capitalism system and the fact that States have always failed to choose reliable systems of equating wealth because they lack what John Rawls refers as â€Å"veil of ignorance†. A critical look at the concept of patterned theory that attempts to achieve just distribution of wealth indicates that it actually defeats this very purpose; this is because limiting the liberty to freely transfer property also ultimately limits the acquisition and distribution of the same property by the same extent. If the ability of people to acquire resources is also curtailed how is it possible to achieve a just distribution of the same properties? In such a predicament I would say Nozick principle of rectification does present a favorable option. Works Cited Birch , A. The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy. London: Routledge Publishers, 1993. Print. Conway, D. Nozick Entitlement Theory of Justice, 1990. Web. Dammon C. A Farewell to Marx: An Outline and Appraisal of his Theories. California: Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1987. Print. Faser, E. Nozick, R. Anarchy, State and Utopia, 2005. Web. Green, M. The Entitlement Theory of Justice. New York: Basic Books, 1974. Print. Hikaru, O. Ethical Theories-John Rawls: A Theory of Justice, 2009. Web. Lennon, J. Business ethics: Metaethics, applied ethics and normative ethics, 2009. Web. Long, R. Robert Nozick: Philosopher of Liberty, 2002. Web. Nozick, R. Anarchy, State, and Utopia. New York: Basic Books, 1974. Print. This term paper on Nozick Entitlement Theory of Justice was written and submitted by user Karsyn H. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.